Musical pitch pMMRs. As with the lexical pMMR, the four-way ANOVA computed on musical pitch pMMR yielded a signifi- cant group × session interaction, F(2, 71) = 4.06, P = 0.021, η = 0.10. No other session, group, or area effects were observed (all Ps > 0.1). There was a main effect of hemisphere, F(2, 142) = 3.97, P = 0.021, η = 0.03. The piano group showed significantly larger pMMRs at posttest compared with those values at pretest, F(1, 29) = 13.97, P < 0.001, η = 0.32 (SI Appendix , Fig. S2B). No such effects were observed for the reading group or the controls (Ps > 0.1). Across all three groups, the musical pitch pMMRs were significantly larger at midline electrodes (1.01 μV) than at left-side electrodes (0.70 μV), P = 0.02 (SI Appendix , Fig. S3B). However, they were not significantly different between midline and right-side electrodes (0.86 μV) or between the bilateral electrodes (both Ps > 0.1). Thus, the piano-training group showed neural evidence for an improvement in auditory processing with training, even though piano training showed an advantage only in behavioral word discrimination based on consonants but with no clear difference between the piano and reading groups in the other related be- havioral improvements (i.e., word discrimination and specifically word discrimination based on vowels).Neural and behavioral correlations. Given that the piano group dem- onstrated specific training effects in behavioral word discrimina- tion based on consonants and in musical pitch and lexical tone pMMRs, we then examined the neural–behavioral relationships among these measures. Within the piano group, the behavioral