It appears that coaction and audience effects in humans are caused by the individual’s “cognitive” concerns about competition and the evaluation of performance that others will make. We learn as we grow up that others praise or criticise, reward or punish our performances, and this raises our drive level when we perform before others. Thus, even the early studies of coaction found that if all elements of competition are removed, coaction effects are reduced or eliminated. Similarly, audience effects are a function of the subject’s interpretation of how much he is being evaluated.