1. IntroductionIn recent years the

1. Introduction
In recent years the potential socio-economic impact of disasters in urban areas has increased many-fold because of increased population, settlements in high risk areas, technological risks, built environments density (Mileti, 1999), and highly engineered environment and infrastructure (Prieto, 2002). Modern cities are complex and rely on inter-dependent systems including a mix of utilities, transportation, and telecommunication infrastructure, commercial and residential building, making them extremely vulnerable. As a result, the damage caused by disasters has the tendency to

Supporting disaster response and recovery

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increase many-fold because of the cascading effect resulting from interdependency between components in metropolitan areas. For instance, the cascading disasters that followed Hurricane Katrina resulted in no electricity, no running water, and no means of communication with the outside world or within the city itself (Price, 2006). All this makes the process of predicting or estimating damage and planning an effective disaster response very difficult. Wrong estimation of the severity and scope of work resulting from a disaster can have disastrous consequences.
During disaster response operations, first responders are often confronted with unfamiliar and often hostile work environments such as large and distributed areas, unpredictable and dynamic work demand and work under high time pressure and stressful situations. Disaster response under such adverse conditions has often been inadequate (McKinsey, 2002; NCSEA, 2003). Various limitations of existing disaster response operations as cited in the literature are summarized in Figure 1. Many shortcomings of the existing disaster response operation result from the fact that first responders at individual, team, and organizational levels are unable to develop a depth of understanding of the situation that would allow them to make comprehensive decisions and respond in a holistically appropriate manner (Son and Pena-Mora, 2006). Responders operating in inhospitable and chaotic disaster environments need answers to questions like where am I? What do we know about the scene? What hazards exist? Where are other responders located? Where are the victims? (Betts et al., 2005). Without adequate answers to such questions and overall awareness of the Situation, disaster responders run the risk of becoming casualties themselves because they do not know enough about the incident scene when they arrive (NAP, 2006). However, current disaster management procedures rely primarily on heuristics which result in their strategies being very cautious and sub-optimum in terms of saving life, minimizing damage and returning the building to its normal function. Recent disaster events have shown that existing disaster response procedures that rely primarily on heuristics result in a response that is often too general and not adapted to the specific situation. “For instance, when a major incident, such as a significant earthquake, occurs, predetermined, static plans are usually brought into operation and any flexibility of response is limited by the ability and competence of those at the scene of the incident to gather relevant data and make appropriate judgments” (Aziz et al., 2004). The gap resulting from demands imposed by inter-dependent urban environments and existing independent and static approaches to disaster response, result in communication and collaboration problems, negative impact on work-flows, low productivity, economic and human losses. Similarly, when assessment of the disaster situation is carried out, it is generally done independently by a number of individual organizations. Often each agency limits its assessment to those observations of direct consequence to that particular organization without sharing or pooling such information. Thus, an overall picture of the scope, severity, and types of disruption and damage does not emerge early in the crisis, affecting the overall response process. Against this background, this paper argues that the theoretical construct of situation awareness (SA) (Endsley and Garland, 2000) can be effectively applied to existing disaster response operations to contrive how to improve them, and to better understand the process of responders’ reaction against complex and
dynamic situations.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: section 2 discusses the concept of situation awareness in current disaster response situations and its various sources.

結果 (繁體中文) 1:

1.介紹近幾年在城市地區的災害的潛在社會經濟影響具有增加的人口，住區在高風險地區，技術風險，建立環境密度 (Mileti，1999年)，和高度工程化的環境和基礎設施 (普列托，2002年) 的增加的多倍。現代城市是複雜的依靠相互依存的系統，包括公用事業、 運輸和電信基礎設施，各種商業及住宅的建設，使他們極易。因此，災害所造成的損害有發展的趨勢 支援救災和恢復411 結構調查第 26 卷第 5 2007第 411-425q 翡翠集團出版有限公司0263-080 X DOI 10.1108/02630800810922757 SS 26.5412 由於在大都市區的元件之間的相互依存產生級聯效應增加多倍。例如，卡特裡娜颶風過後的級聯災害導致沒有電、 沒有自來水和沒辦法交流與外部世界或本身 (價格，2006 年) 在城市之內。這一切使預測或估計損傷和規劃有效救災非常困難的過程。估計錯誤的嚴重程度和造成的災害的工作範圍可以帶來災難性的後果。During disaster response operations, first responders are often confronted with unfamiliar and often hostile work environments such as large and distributed areas, unpredictable and dynamic work demand and work under high time pressure and stressful situations. Disaster response under such adverse conditions has often been inadequate (McKinsey, 2002; NCSEA, 2003). Various limitations of existing disaster response operations as cited in the literature are summarized in Figure 1. Many shortcomings of the existing disaster response operation result from the fact that first responders at individual, team, and organizational levels are unable to develop a depth of understanding of the situation that would allow them to make comprehensive decisions and respond in a holistically appropriate manner (Son and Pena-Mora, 2006). Responders operating in inhospitable and chaotic disaster environments need answers to questions like where am I? What do we know about the scene? What hazards exist? Where are other responders located? Where are the victims? (Betts et al., 2005). Without adequate answers to such questions and overall awareness of the Situation, disaster responders run the risk of becoming casualties themselves because they do not know enough about the incident scene when they arrive (NAP, 2006). However, current disaster management procedures rely primarily on heuristics which result in their strategies being very cautious and sub-optimum in terms of saving life, minimizing damage and returning the building to its normal function. Recent disaster events have shown that existing disaster response procedures that rely primarily on heuristics result in a response that is often too general and not adapted to the specific situation. “For instance, when a major incident, such as a significant earthquake, occurs, predetermined, static plans are usually brought into operation and any flexibility of response is limited by the ability and competence of those at the scene of the incident to gather relevant data and make appropriate judgments” (Aziz et al., 2004). The gap resulting from demands imposed by inter-dependent urban environments and existing independent and static approaches to disaster response, result in communication and collaboration problems, negative impact on work-flows, low productivity, economic and human losses. Similarly, when assessment of the disaster situation is carried out, it is generally done independently by a number of individual organizations. Often each agency limits its assessment to those observations of direct consequence to that particular organization without sharing or pooling such information. Thus, an overall picture of the scope, severity, and types of disruption and damage does not emerge early in the crisis, affecting the overall response process. Against this background, this paper argues that the theoretical construct of situation awareness (SA) (Endsley and Garland, 2000) can be effectively applied to existing disaster response operations to contrive how to improve them, and to better understand the process of responders’ reaction against complex and動態的情況。本文的其餘部分組織如下: 第 2 節討論了在當前救災情勢和其各種來源的情境意識的概念。

結果 (繁體中文) 2:

1.引言
近年來在城市地區災害的潛在的社會經濟影響有所增加，因為人口的增加，在高風險領域，技術風險定居點，建築環境密度（Mileti，1999年），以及高度工程化的環境和許多倍基礎設施（普列托，2002）。現代城市是複雜的，依靠相互依存的系統，包括公用事業，交通運輸和電信基礎設施，商業和住宅建築的混合，使得他們極度脆弱。其結果是，災害造成的損失有傾向支持救災和恢復411 結構的調查卷。26第5位，2007年第 411-425 q翡翠集團出版有限公司0263-080X DOI 10.1108 / 02630800810922757 SS 26,5 412 增加許多倍，因為從大都市組件之間的相互關係所產生的連鎖效應。例如，隨後卡特里娜颶風級聯災害導致沒有電，沒有自來水，也沒有辦法與外界或城市本身的（價格，2006年）內的通信。這一切都使得預測或估計的損害和計劃進行有效的災害反應非常艱難的過程。估計錯誤的嚴重性，並從災難造成的工作範圍可能會造成災難性的後果。在災難應對行動，第一反應往往面臨著不熟悉的和時常懷有敵意的工作環境，如大而分散的地區，在不可預知的和動態的工作要求和工作高時間壓力和緊張的情況下。如此惡劣的條件下，救災工作經常是不夠的（麥肯錫，2002年; NCSEA，2003）。引自文獻中現有的災難應對行動的各種限制是一個事實，即第一個響應者在個人，團隊和組織水平是無法發展的理解深度總結在圖的現有的災難響應操作的結果1。許多缺點這種情況，讓他們做出全面的決定，並在整體上適當的方式（兒子和佩納-莫拉，2006年）作出回應。工作在荒涼和混亂的災難環境中人員需要回答的問題，比如我在哪裡？我們究竟了解現場？有什麼危害存在嗎？當其他的應答者在什麼位置？哪裡是受害者？（貝茨等人，2005）。如果沒有足夠的這些問題的答案和情況的大局意識，災害反應運行成為傷亡自己的風險，因為他們不知道有足夠的了解事故現場，當他們到達（NAP，2006年）。然而，目前的災害管理過程主要依賴於這導致他們的戰略是非常謹慎和次優的拯救生命，最大限度地減少損失和返回建築它的正常功能方面的啟發。最近的災難事件表明，主要依靠啟發式導致反應往往是過於籠統，沒有適應具體情況，現有的災難應變程序。“例如，當重大事故，如顯著地震發生時，預定的，靜態的計劃通常投入運行和響應的任何靈活性是由那些在事件發生現場收集相關數據的能力和競爭力有限並作出適當的判斷“（Aziz等人，2004）。由相互依存的城市環境和現有的獨立的和靜態的方法來應對災害強加的要求造成的差距，導致溝通和協作問題，對工作流的負面影響，生產力低下，經濟和人員損失。類似地，當災情評估被執行時，它一般獨立地由多個單獨的組織進行。通常每個機構限制了它的評估，直接後果是特定組織的這些意見沒有分享或共用這些信息。因此，適用範圍，嚴重性和類型破壞和損害的全貌不會出現在危機初期，影響了整體反應過程。在此背景下，本文認為的態勢感知的理論建構（SA）（恩茲利和 ​​花環，2000），可有效地應用於現有的災難應對行動，以圖謀如何改進，並更好地理解反應“的反應過程針對複雜的，動態的情況下，在本文的其餘部分安排如下：第2節討論的態勢感知的概念，在當前應對災害的情況和它的各種渠道。

結果 (繁體中文) 3:

1。介紹
近年來在都市灾害潜在的社會經濟影響是由於新增的人口增長了許多倍，居住在高風險區域，科技風險、環境建設密度（Mileti，1999），高度工程化的環境和基礎設施（普列托，2002）。現代都市是複雜的，依賴於相互依賴的系統，包括公用事業，交通和電信基礎設施，商業和住宅建築的組合，使他們極為脆弱。作為一個結果，損傷造成的灾害已經傾向於

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新增許多倍，因為連鎖效應產生的相互依存的組件之間的都市。例如，颶風卡特麗娜導致的級聯灾害導致了沒有電力，沒有自來水，而且沒有與外界溝通的手段或在都市本身（價格，2006）。所有這一切都使得預測或估計損失的過程和規劃一個有效的灾害反應很難。灾害的嚴重性和範圍的錯誤估計可能會帶來災難性的後果，第一反應者往往面臨著不熟悉的和經常敵對的工作環境，如大型和分佈式領域，不可預測的和動態的工作需求和工作在高壓力和壓力的情况下。在如此惡劣的條件下，救災往往是不够的（麥肯錫，2002；全國社區學校教育協會，2003）。