In recent years, the input of polyfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs)
to the atmosphere and their fate has been recognized as one of the
emerging issues in environmental chemistry. PFCs comprise a
diverse group of chemicals that have been widely used as processing
additives during fluoropolymer production and as surfactants in
consumer applications, including stain repellents in textile, furniture
and paper products for over 50 years.1During production and usage,
PFCs can be released into the environment,2,3where they have been
found to be ubiquitous in water,4 air,5,6 sediment,7 and organisms.8
Once released in the environment, fluorotelomer alcohols
(FTOHs), perfluorooctane sulfonamides (FOSAs) and perfluorooctane
sulfonamidoethanols (FOSEs) can be degraded in the
atmosphere or under aerobic conditions to perfluoroalkyl carboxylic
acids (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs).911
PFCAs and PFSAs are resistant to typical environmental degradation
processes and PFSAs and longer chain PFCAs are known
to be bioaccumulative12 and have possible adverse effects on humans
and wildlife.13,14 They can be transported by ocean currents4 and
atmosphere15 and their volatile precursors (i.e., FTOHs, FOSAs,
FOSEs) can undergo long-range transport via the atmosphere.5,6,16
As a result, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) has been added
to the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) list of the Stockholm
Convention in May 2009 resulting in global restrictions on its
uses and production.17
Based on the production volume, historic emissions are estimated
to be 680045 300 t for perfluorooctylsulfonyl fluoride (POSF)
(19722002).3 The majority of the emissions were estimated to
have been released to the aqueous environment (∼45 000 t) and