21 Angrist and Krueger (2001) argue that ‘‘Concerns about weak instruments can be mitigated most simply by looking at the reduced form equation, that is, the ordinary least squares regression of the dependent variable of interest on the instruments and exogenous variables. These estimates are unbiased, even if the instruments are weak. Because the reduced form effects are proportional to the coefficient of interest, one can determine the sign of the coefficient of interest. Most importantly, if the reduced form estimates are not significantly different from zero, the presumption should be that the effect of interest is either absent or the instruments are too weak to detect it