Self-regulation has been defined as “self-generated thoughts, feelings, and actionsthat are planned and cyclically adapted to the attainment of personal goals” (Zimmerman,2000, p. 14). Following a social cognitive perspective, self-regulation was viewed ashaving triadic forms where elements related to person, environment and behavior interactwith one another (Bandura, 1986). A comprehensive overview of self-regulated learningby Pintrich (2000) provides a framework classifying different phases and areas for Hui-chia Shih (施惠家)28regulation. The four phases, though not necessarily linear in structure, can appear in atime-sequenced order: (1) forethought, planning, and activation (when learners set goalsand activate prior knowledge); (2) monitoring (referring to learners’ monitoring their ownmetacognitive awareness); (3) control (when learners make effort to control and regulatevarious conditions); and (4) reaction and reflection (referring to the reactions andreflections to the task, context, or the learners themselves). Similar to Pintrich’sself-regulation process, Zimmerman (2000) also proposed a cyclical process ofself-regulation, in which a learner analyzes tasks and sets goals in the Forethought Phase,controls and monitors their own performance in the Performance Phase, and evaluates orreflects upon the outcome in the Self-reflection Phase. Two or more phases, according toSchunk (2005), can appear simultaneously in a learner, when, for instance, a short-termgoal is reached and the long-term goal may need revision.Upon closer examination, it can be argued that Pintrich’s (2000) and Zimmerman’s(2000) regulation processes are similar in that the monitor and control phase in Pintrich’sframework belong to the performance phase in Zimmerman’s. As was pointed out byPintrich, the separation of monitoring (phase 2) and control/regulation (phase 3) is not soclear-cut according to empirical research. Also, Zimmerman maintained that there aretwo types of processes in the performance phase: self-control and self-observation.Self-observation is conceptually similar to the monitoring process in Pintrich’sframework. Therefore, we could say that Pintrich’s steps 2 and 3 are combined inZimmerman’s framework. Other than the phases, Pintrich also presented four differentareas that a learner can monitor, control, and regulate: First, in the cognition area,individual learners may attempt to employ different cognitive and metacognitivestrategies to control and regulate their cognition. Second, the motivation and affect arearefers to the motivational belief and strategies a learner holds towards the task. Third, inthe area of behavior, a learner may attempt to control their own behavior so as to persistin or decrease effort towards carrying out a task. Finally, the context area refers to thesocial context and task environment surrounding the individual learner, who may monitoror shape the environment to make it suitable for one’s own learning.From the area of educational psychology, Dörnyei (2001) conceived a system basedon Kuhl’s (1987) and Corno and Kanfer’s (1993) control strategies, proposing five facets:Commitment control—keep or modify the original goal commitment; Metacognitivecontrol—control concentration and reduce procrastination; Satiation control—add to thetask more appealing elements; Emotional control—managing one’s emotion that benefitslearning; Environmental control—making the environment suitable for goal attaining.Dörnyei’s action control strategies are characteristic of the performance phase inZimmerman’s (2000) SR cycle, focusing on learners’ volition action control.